Political Theory and the Great Gatsby

In his article â€Å"‘A New World, Material Without Being Real': Fitzgerald's Critique of Capitalism in The Great Gatsby,† Ross Posnock establishes Fitzgerald's interest in Marxism by placing him as a Nietzschean Marxist and contemporizing him with Georg Lukacs's History and Class Consciousness, printed in 1923, and with Marx's theories by extension, attempting to â€Å"demonstrate how deeply Marx's critique is assimilated into the novel's imaginative life,† although he is careful to point out that Fitzgerald â€Å"does not share their abhorrence of capitalism† [201]. Posnock offers a close reading of material objects and Gatsby's subsequent mystification with them to analyze the conflict between the individual and society, Nietzsche and Marx. I would suggest a revision to Posnock's analysis of The Great Gatsby, reidentifying the material world Posnock places as â€Å"Gatsby's† as that of the Buchanans, with Gatsby an implicit imposter. As Habermas summarizes, Nietzsche's theory of knowledge is replaced by a perspectival theory of the affects whose highest principle is â€Å"that every belief, every taking-for-true, is necessarily false because there is no true world† [Habermas 122]. In analyzing the material acquisitions of Gatsby, Posnock seems to demonstrate how Gatsby attempts to create himself, to make his world real, through the material values of the Buchanans. Yet his past and his characteristics, his â€Å"old sport† catchphrase, are all a smokescreen diverting us from knowing the true character of Gatsby. Nietzsche would seem to offer the explanation that there is no real Gatsby. Coppola similarly provides a material reading of Gatsby in the opening sequence of his screenplay, as he moves the audience from Gatsby's cars to his concert Steinway, crystal decanters, a toilet set of pure dull gold, rows and rows of fine suits (plus one military uniform), and an emerald ring [Coppola 1-3]. Posnock and Coppola seem to see a system of material enclosure created by the Tom Buchanans of the world, the American aristocracy, complete with moral values. The system has created the parameters by which Gatsby may define himself, by his possessions. Reexaminations of Marxism, such as the thought of Jurgen Habermas, investigates the social and cultural implications about which Marx wrote, allowing for deeper analysis than Posnock's superficial offering. If my understanding is correct, in Legitimation Crisis, Habermas looks at socio-cultural crisis tendencies and how they reflect political and economic systems crises, saying that input crises of the socio-cultural system are output crises of economic and political systems, or that the crises of the political and economic systems manifest themselves through the socio-cultural system. Thus, the crisis of an impostor illegally climbing the class hierarchy, acquiring power and influence, manifests itself socially, in the conflict between Tom and Gatsby for Daisy's love. But this social crisis has political and economic consequences as well, reflected through our narrator. According to Habermas, â€Å"In advanced capitalism, [changes in the socio-cultural system] are becoming apparent at the level of cultural tradition (moral systems, world views) as well as at the level of structural change †¦ and core components of the bourgeois ideology become questionable (endangering civil and familial-professional privatism)† [48-49]. The socio-cultural system lagged behind while the economic system moved from traditional to liberal capitalism (laissez-faire capitalism). As the economic system moved into advanced capitalism with the power of the Progressives (beginning with Theodore Roosevelt), the socio-cultural system caught up as well, forcing changes in input from the political system. Consequently, the political system has interfered more with civic privatism, including the New Deal and Lyndon Johnson's â€Å"Great Society† programs, in a search to build new, satisfactory normative structures while older but imperative normative structures, like education, have lagged behind, jeopardizing the economic system. The Great Gatsby is set at the socio-cultural junction that Habermas describes. Essentially, our nation was coming of age, and the booming period of the 1920s could be interpreted as a dysfunctional attempt to enjoy the newly-available economic riches. In terms of Gatsby, the conflict between Gatsby and Buchanan really focuses on Nick Carraway, our narrator. In the same way that Gatsby has already chosen to define himself via the social norms established, Nick must now also decide how to define himself as he claims his voice as narrator. According to Judith Butler, who is interpreting Lacan, â€Å"Entrance into language comes at a price: the norms that govern the inception of the speaking subject differentiate the subject from the unspeakable, that is, produce an unspeakability as the condition of subject formation† [Butler 135]. We encounter Nick after his coming of age, marked by his 30th birthday on the evening of Tom and Gatsby's confrontation, a day when â€Å"the transition from libertine to prig was so complete† [Fitzgerald 137], after he is allowed a voice. In fact, Carraway is only offered the opportunity to speak by his laissez-faire reaction to the moral dilemma. According to Butler: Although psychoanalysis refers to this inception of the subject as taking place in infancy, this primary relation to speech, the subject's entry into language by way of the originary ‘bar' is reinvoked in political life when the question of being able to speak is once again a condition of the subject's survival. The question of the ‘cost' of this survival is not simply that an unconscious is produced that cannot be fully assimilated to the ego, or that a ‘real' is produced that can never be presented within language. The condition for the subject's survival is precisely the foreclosure of what threatens the subject most fundamentally; thus, the ‘bar' produces the threat and defends against it at the same time [135]. The conflict of The Great Gatsby, if we apply Butler, focuses on Nick Carraway through the threat of Jay Gatsby's impediment on social hierarchy. The foreclosure of the threat, the execution of Gatsby, presents the ‘bar', the moral dilemma to which Nick must react. According to Saussure, â€Å"The social uses of language owe their specifically social value to the fact that they tend to be organized in systems of difference †¦ which reproduce †¦ the system of social difference. †¦ To speak is to appropriate one or another of the expressive styles already constituted in and through usage and objectively marked by their position in a hierarchy of styles which expresses the hierarchy of corresponding social groups† [Butler 157]. As Butler points out, Saussure is rehabilitating the base/superstructure model through the relationship of language and the social system [Butler 157]. The fight of Gatsby is really over cultural norms, and how Nick reacts in the last chapter is essential to the American future, in terms of Habermas, but also presents the threat of Nick being cast into the realm of the unspeakable. In his final encounter with Jordan Baker, Nick learns that turning 30, with the â€Å"portentous menacing road of a new decade† before him [Fitzgerald 143], comes final responsibility in speaking. When he says to her, â€Å"I'm thirty. †¦ I'm five years too old to lie to myself and call it honor† [Fitzgerald 186], Nick realizes he insults Jordan, casting her into the unspeakable by citing their age difference: â€Å"She didn't answer. Angry, and half in love with her, and tremendously sorry, I turned away† [Fitzgerald 186]. Not knowing exactly how he feels about Jordan and speaking without knowing, Nick comes to understanding the importance of speech through the guilt and shame he feels. That his ambivalent feelings toward Jordan, being half in love with her, mirror his feelings toward Gatsby, the contradictions that Donaldson points out would indicate that Nick comes to an informed decision about Gatsby before telling the story. At some point between Nick telling Gatsby â€Å"They're a rotten crowd. †¦ You're worth the whole damn bunch put together† [Fitzgerald 162] and telling the reader, â€Å"I disapproved of him from beginning to end† [Fitzgerald 162], one sentence later, Nick came to a moral understanding with socio-cultural and political implications.

Minimum School Leaving Age Essay

In some countries the minimum school leaving age is 15 years and children and their parents have no right to decide when they will leave school. According to the law in those countries it would be illegal for them to leave school earlier. However, there is a number of reasons for children to have to leave school earlier not taken into the account by the government. Firstly, I am going to consider the family reasons. It is undoubtedly true that not all families have the necessary financial basis to raise a child. On the contrary, families in some countries are so poor they hardly have any money to support their day-to-day living. Sometimes they cannot even provide a child with a lunchbox for school or the suitable clothing, not to mention paying the school fees. In these cases families often want their children to start working at an early age so, by earning their living, they can help the family to survive. Often the attitude towards education in those families is very negative; they do not find it useful for a child and consider it as waste of time. Secondly, it is important to consider how schools may influence students to leave school early. The common problem to cause many children, especially the talented ones to leave early is bullying. Despite their awareness of the problem, some schools still fail to notice the signs and take necessary measures to protect children from constant abuse by other students. Thirdly, I would like to mention personal reasons such as poor learning ability, lack of wiliness and motivation and also personal circumstances in particular early pregnancy for girls. These factors may also cause children to leave school. However, even though there are family, school and personal reasons resulting in children leaving school before reaching the minimum school leaving age, it is still very important for children to reach a minimum level of education before entering the adult world. In particular this is essential in a way that a child should have had expanded their own knowledge to the  point where they are able to make decisions and choices of their own rather than their parent’s. In conclusion, it is vital that governments ensure children reach a minimum level of education by motivating students to stay at school. For example, schools may introduce more subjects for students to choose from, and make those extra subjects job orientated. They can also improve the ambiance at school and establish rewards for children to continue their education.

The theme of the display will be representative examples of Saints and Martyrs created during the Reformation, the theme is to display the notion of the Catholic Church as the one true church separate and distinct from the Protestantism. Art works developed in the Catholic Church at this time were to be unique and focus on specific aspects of the Catholic dogma. The art pieces I have selected are strong examples of the beliefs of the time that art should focus on: Jesus Christ, Mary the Virgin Mother, Saints, and martyrs. This exhibition would be a balanced representation, as it shows an uplifting painting in The Dream of Saint Catherine as well as the suffering of those who, literally, gave up their lives for their faith in the Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew and in Saint Sebastian, showing both central figures suffering for what they believed in and the splendor of angels taking Saint Sebastian to his savior. The use of vivid colors interspersed with blacks and grays was typical and used to draw the viewer closer to see what lies in the darkness of the images. The viewers should learn that art of this time was limited, somewhat, in terms of subject and content, but was unlimited in each artist’s different rendition of the Saints and Martyrs of the day. I chose this topic and these images because they are excellent examples of the church’s vision of what constituted appropriate art at the time, â€Å"prior to the Reformation, the Catholic Church was considered elitist, rather than a place for the masses. The Counter-Reformation changed this approach and the Catholic Church tried to be open and transparent to all audiences. Art was a way to teach both the literate and illiterate about Christianity† (Crocker Art Museum).   The Catholic Church’s view of what was acceptable and expected in art, was, in many ways,   prescriptive, i.e., pious individuals were to be a main focus to encourage piety in those who gazed upon it. It forced the artist to meet the criteria established by the church, to include what subjects were favored, how the images should be direct and compelling in the narration and should be presented in a clear manner, without unnecessary embellishments. Finally, the art was to be simple enough tha t ordinary people could easily understand the story being portrayed, to the extent possible. The three pieces fit together as a collection because they represent the subjects giving up something for their faith. Saint Catherine gives up the possibility of being a wife and a mother through her imaginary marriage to Christ. This sacrifice is reinforced by the images of Mary and the infant Christ accompanied by angels both in the forefront and in the darker portions of the painting. Saint Sebastian is an image of the saint’s â€Å"state of emotional transport and transcendence of bodily pain.† He is accompanied by angels that are supporting him, representing the notion that he is not alone. Get high quality custom written essay just for $10 The angels appear to be taking Sebastian to a better place as a reward for his suffering and persecution of being a Christian under the reign of Diocletian. The last painting, Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew, is another representation of someone giving up their lives for their church, but it is slightly different in that Bartholomew is alive in every sense of the word and although he is a sympathy inducing subject, he does not dwell in the suffering, but looks towards heaven. â€Å"The viewer is meant to empathize with Bartholomew, whose body seemingly bursts through the surface of the canvas, and whose outstretched arms embrace a mystical light that illuminates his flesh. His piercing eyes, open mouth, and petitioning left hand bespeak an intense communion with the divine; yet this same hand draws our attention to the instruments of his torture, symbolically positioned in the shape of a cross.† The three pieces placed together represent the artist’s interpretation of ev ents in a manner that comes across as almost three dimensional. The figures in each of the paintings, particularly the main figure, appears as though they could burst off the canvas with ease. The Dream of Saint Catherine of Alexandria was painted by Logovico Carracci, c 1593. Lodovico was the oldest of the three Carracci’s from the family of Bolognese artists who are recognized as having â€Å"inaugurated the age of the baroque.† His work was in high demand due to the fact that his depictions of Saints were known for eliciting piety in those who laid eyes upon his work. The piece was completed when Carracci was about 38 years old. The painting at one time was even owned by the French Royal Family. The figure of Saint Catherine asleep was based on an ancient Roman statue. Saint Sebastian by Tanzio De Varallo. Tanzio da Varallo (Antonio d’Enrico) was born c. 1575 in Varallo in the mountains north of Milan and orphaned at 11 when he moved to live with his brothers who were working on the Sacro Monte, where he first received his artistic training. In 1600 he was given permission to go to Rome for the Jubilee Year. There is strong evidence he traveled to Naples and Venice, where he continued to work and study. He died in Varallo Sesia in 1633. De Ribera was a Spanish Tenebrist painter. A great deal of his best known work was done in Rome, Italy, and Naples where he finally settled. This painting was done while he was living in Naples. Little is written about the specific reasons for each piece, other than the pious nature of the subjects and the similarities to paintings made by each artist in the time period. The Dream of Saint Catherine of Alexandria, c. 1593, exemplifies the goals of the Guidelines for Church art following Council of Trent: Be clear, intelligible, realistic, to be an emotional stimulant to the faithful, emphasis on the mystical, and a tool for instructing the illiterate. The image is of Saint Catherine dressed in the finest of clothes sound asleep accompanied by two angels, Mary and infant Jesus looking down at her spiritually and supportively. The colors, where they are used, are bright and inviting, and the darker portion of the painting is mystical as the shadows seem out of proportion, â€Å"at the same time, the quirky folds and pleats cascading down Catherine’s garments impart a vertiginous sensation — the dizziness of sleep.† Rely on professional writers with your college paper and take a load off your mind. Relax while we are working on your essay. Your peace of mind is just one click away